Have you ever encountered the words “had had” in a sentence and thought you were seeing double? Well, rest assured that your eyesight is all right and what you were seeing was a perfectly correct grammatical construction called the past perfect tense.
The Double Had Had in a Sentence
Perfect verb tense is used to show an action that is complete and finished, or perfected. This tense is expressed by adding one of the auxiliary verbs — have, has, or had — to the past participle form of the main verb.
Have + eaten
Has + finished
Had + loved
So what’s going on with the had had construction?
To understand the double had you have to remember that The past perfect is formed by using the past tense of have, which is HAD, and a past participle of the main verb, HAVE, which is also HAD. When we use “have” as a main verb we are using to mean possess, own, hold for use, or contain.
So to be clear, have can be used as an auxiliary verb and as a main verb. Let’s think of this when forming the past perfect tense, when you want to indicate that you possessed, owned an action sometime in the past, but it is completed or perfected now.
You would use the past form of the auxiliary verb have which is HAD. And you would use the past participle of the main verb HAVE which is HAD.
Before the parent-teacher meeting, my teacher had (already) had many conferences with me due to my poor grades. (interrupted by an adverb).
I had had many opportunities to complete extra credit assignments before my final grade was posted. ( for emphasis) certainly
We had not had enough sleep the night before; therefore, we were very tired the morning of the test. (negative adverb not–show it also in the contracted form)
To conclude, please know that the use of ‘Had Had” is becoming less common and that although technically there is a difference between the past perfect tense and the simple past, semantically speaking, there is often little difference as long as the context is understood.
There are three basic types of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative. But there is a fourth type of conjunction that we are going to talk about today. And that is the conjunctive adverb.
In today’s lesson we’ll define what conjunctive adverbs are and compare them side by side to the coordinating conjunction, the subordinating conjunction, and the correlative conjunction. We’ll look at the punctuation rules that govern conjunctive adverbs.
Adverbs Modify Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Phrases, and Clauses
You probably already know that adverbs are words that modify adjectives, verbs, other adverbs, phrases, and entire sentences.
And conjunctive adverbs, also called adverbial conjunctions, connectors, connective adverbs, linkers, linking adverbs, transition words, and transitional phrases, modify entire sentences, also referred to as independent clauses.
These types of adverbs are used to show the logical relationship between two separate independent clauses within one sentence, to show a function between two separate ideas in sentences or paragraphs, and to act as interrupters within the sentence. And this is clearly evident with the punctuation used to set off the conjunctive adverb.
Conjunctive adverbs are used to show addition, cause and effect, comparison, contrast, emphasis, example or illustration, sequence, summary, and time.
Find the Conjunctive Adverbs in this Passage
There is an ongoing debate that continues to divide pet owners. Which is smarter, cats or dogs? Animal behaviorists believe that cats have the intelligence of a two-year-old human toddler. Moreover, cats have complex brains, good short-term memory, and high emotional intelligence.
Hence, cats can remember where an object is located for up to 16 hours and can respond to their human’s cues. Dogs, however, can only remember an object’s location for 5 minutes.
But does this mean that cats are smarter than dogs? Comparatively speaking, dogs are often perceived to be more intelligent because they are more trainable. This is because dogs view humans at the top of the chain of command and have formed bonds over centuries of training. Conversely, cats do not recognize hierarchies and do not see humans as their masters.
Indeed, cats are not interested in following human commands on demand. Cats want to do things on their terms. For instance, a cat will not seek help from its owner to perform a difficult task; accordingly, they will work on the task until successful. Meanwhile, a dog will seek help from its owner when confronted with a difficult task. To summarize, cats are highly intelligent creatures, and cat lovers will tell you that their fabulous feline is clever and brilliant; however, dog lovers will say the same of their prodigious pups. Surely, this debate will not be settled any time soon.
PUNCTUATING CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
The way conjunctive adverbs are punctuated sets them apart from other conjunctions. This is because conjunctive adverbs may be found in different places in the clause and depending on their placement, the punctuation will differ
Conjunctive adverbs can appear at the beginning of a sentence. In the middle of the sentence, as interrupters, or at the end of the sentence.
The punctuation structure is as follows:
When a CA starts the sentence, place a comma after the CA
CA + comma + Independent Clause
Conversely, cats do not recognize hierarchies.
When a conjunctive adverb joins two independent clauses, the conjunctive adverb takes a semicolon in front of it and a comma after.
A cat will not seek help from its owner to perform a difficult task; accordingly, they will work on the task until successful.
You may even find the CA at the end of the sentence.
Independent clause + comma + CA
Dog lovers will probably say the same of their pets, undoubtedly.
As a rule, the CA will be placed before the subject if starting the sentence,
Between the subject and the first verb if interrupting the sentence
And at the end of the sentence.
Some grammar sites will tell you that transitional words or phrases are not conjunctive adverbs. And others will tell you that interrupters are not conjunctive adverbs either. Remember that with most grammar subjects, there may be disagreements among your professors, textbooks, and grammar sites. So always consult the style book or follow your teacher’s guidelines and instructions.
Do not confuse the CA for the Subordinating conjunction or the coordinating conjunction:
Remember that a conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses.
Cats appear aloof; however, they can be quite loving.
Subordinating conjunctions, also known as subordinating adverbs, are used to link a dependent clause to an independent clause.
Although cats appear aloof, they can be quite loving.
coordinating conjunctions are used to link two independent clauses with a comma. Remember the acronym FANBOYS.
Cats appear aloof, but they can be quite loving.
Be careful: COMMA SPLICE***A conjunctive adverb cannot join two independent clauses with a comma. This will create a comma splice which is a punctuation error.***
Correlative conjunctions:
Dogs are not only highly trainable but also incredibly loyal to their human.
CONCLUSION:
When you are familiar with conjunctive adverbs, your reading comprehension will improve because you will be able to recognize the logical progression of ideas presented in the text. Consequently, by using conjunctive adverbs in your writing, you’ll be able to present a smooth flow of transitions and help your reader follow your reasoning making for a well-ordered flow of ideas.
File name : Common-List-of-Conjunctive-Adverbs.pdf
A gerund is a type of verbal that has the form of a verb but acts as a noun. In fact, because a gerund looks identical to the present participle some grammarian refer to it as the gerund-participle. This is because both the gerund and the present participle end in -ing and are formed from verbs.
Let’s clarify: Some grammar sites will tell you that a participle can function as a noun and this is technically true, but you could say that a present participle that functions a noun is a gerund.
What is a Gerund?
But how can a word derived from a verb and called a verbal act as a noun? There’s a simple explanation. The gerund expresses the abstract concept of the verb.
A gerund is a verbal. This means that it expresses and abstract concept, a thing. For example, walking is a thing. You do this thing or you act on this thing.
Thinking is a thing you do
So is loving, eating, swimming, and running.
Let’s delve deeper into what a gerund actually represents. So we know that a gerund is formed from a verb. A verb is defined as either an action or a state of being. A gerund, in effect, represents the concept of the action, not the actual performance. We can use gerunds to talk about these actions or states of being in an abstract way.
So a way to think about gerunds is to view them as a representation of a concept or a thing that you do or are.
For example, let’s think about singing. Singing is something you do. It’s an action when you’re actively doing it. I am singing. In this example, singing is a verb. However, when you think about that action, that thing called singing, you’re actually thinking of an abstract concept, and this representation of that abstract concept is what we call a gerund when the verb form takes on the -ing.
Singing in the shower reduces stress levels. In this example, the concept, the thing of singing in the shower is what is being discussed. In this example singing in the shower is a gerund phrase.
Tips to Identify a Gerund
Two tips to identify the gerund:
Let’s look at the gerund. Let’s begin by sharing a tip that you can use to identify any noun or noun form. If you can replace a word, phrase, or clause with a pronoun, usually, “It” or the demonstrative pronouns “this” or “that”, then you have a noun.
What differentiates the usage of a present participle as a noun (gerund) or as an adjective (participial) is it’s function or place in the sentence and the punctuation around it.
Where can you find a gerund in the sentence?
A gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Of you can find the gerund as a phrase as part of any of these forms.
Let’s try it
SUBJECT
Bowling is not an Olympic sport.
Meditating helps me relax.
Reading is fundamental.
Quitting your job is not an option right now.
Memorizing the lines requires focus and concentration.
Skiing on compacted snow can be dangerous.
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
Ralph’s passion is teaching international students.
The baby’s new habit is throwing her food on the floor.
Rick’s new hobbyis flying a small plane.
DIRECT OBJECT
Ralph enjoys teaching English to international students. (answers what of the verb)
Kaylee remembers leaving a message.
INDIRECT OBJECT
Jose gave learning the piano another chance.
Shannon made serving the poor her lifelong career.
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
Antoine was sent to the principal’s office for cheating.
Father grounded me for driving the car without his permission.
CAUTION
Just because a word ends in -ing does not mean it’s a gerund. Remember that a gerund is a verbal that looks like a verb because it is derived from a verb. However, because of its place in the sentence, it acts like a noun.
ING words like
King
Ring
Thing
Something
Everything
are not gerunds although they end in ing.
And then we have the present participle which looks just like a gerund because unless you identify the function in the sentence, you will not know for sure just by looking at it.
We know that an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It answers the question of when, where, how, why, to what extent or under what conditions.
In the same manner, adverb clauses add information that elaborates on when, where, why, and how by modifying or describing verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. An adverb clause is a dependent or subordinate clause that has a relationship with the independent or main clause. The adverb clause is referred to as the dependent clause and it connects to the independent clause with a subordinating conjunction. The subordinating conjunction establishes the relationship between the two clauses: the adverb clause and the main clause.
There may be times when you will want to reduce the adverb clause to an adverbial phrase. Reduced adverb clauses are mostly used in formal writing to add variety and conciseness to your sentence structure.
When reducing adverb clauses, we must consider four things:
Both the independent clause and the adverb clause must share the same subject.
Remove the modal or auxiliary verb in the adverb clause. (There are exceptions to this.)
The reduction must not alter the relationship or time frame indicated in the original sentence.
You may leave the subordinating conjunction with the exception of because, since, or as.
EXAMPLES of Reduced Adverb Clauses
Although the bride was nervous, she was happy to walk down the aisle.
The first thing you’re going to do is check the subjects in both clauses: the bride in the adverb clause and she in the main clause.
Remove the subject “the bride” in the adverb clause and move it over to the main clause. The pronoun “she” is ambiguous. It could be any person, but you want to make sure your reader knows it’s “the bride”.
Remove the helping verb “was”.
Reduction: Although nervous, the bride was happy to walk down the aisle.
2. Once the cake is done, it must cool in the refrigerator.
Move “the cake” over to the main clause.
Remove the helping verb “is”.
Reduction: Once done, the cake must cool in the refrigerator.
3. Because she did not have breakfast, Minnie was hungry and tired all morning.
Remove the subject in the adverb clause.
Remove the helping verb did and the subordinate conjunction “because”.
Reduction: Not having breakfast, Minnie was hungry and tired all morning.
4. Before Dee goes to bed, she brushes her teeth.
Move the subject “Dee” over to the main clause.
Change the verb “goes” to the present participle “going”.
Reduction: Before going to bed, Dee brushes her teeth.
5. While Father was mowing the lawn, he whistled a tune.
Move “Father” over to the main clause.
Remove the helping verb “was”.
While mowing the lawn, Father whistled a tune.
Caution: Beware of dangling modifiers.
6. Tom was attacked by a shark when he was swimming in the beach.
Tom was attacked while swimming in the beach implies that the shark is the one swimming in the beach.
Move the clause to the beginning.
While swimming in the beach, Tom was attacked by a shark.
File name : Introduction-to-Reducing-Adverb-Clauses.pdf
An inverted sentence occurs when the verb comes before the subject. Inversion is common in interrogative sentences and when adverbs or adverbial phrases, modifiers, and conditionals like so and such begin the sentence. Examples are given.
Subject-verb agreement is for the most part fairly straight forward, but can be tricky when you have compound subjects joined by nor and or, collective nouns, indefinite pronouns, singular nouns that end in s, the pronoun none, inverted sentences beginning with here and there, and sentences interrupted by phrases. Examples are given.
Sometimes it’s hard to know which pronoun to use. Even native speakers get confused with subject and object pronouns. In this video, we look at the subject pronoun “I” and the object pronoun “me” and show 3 strategies to use these correctly. This is usually tested on standardized tests.
In this lesson, we will look at abstract nouns. Abstract nouns may be confusing because they are not concrete persons, places, or things. You cannot use your 5 senses to identify abstract nouns, but after watching this video you will have a better understanding and will be able to pick them out in a sentence. Examples are given.
